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GCSE/Geography/Edexcel

T2.2Patterns and causes of uneven development: physical, historical (colonialism), economic and political factors

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Notes

Uneven Development

Measuring development

Development is uneven across the globe and is measured by economic, social and political indicators:

  • Economic: GNI per capita, GDP, % in the primary sector.
  • Social: life expectancy, literacy rate, infant mortality, mean years of schooling.
  • Composite: Human Development Index (HDI) combines income, education and health into a 0–1 score (Norway 0.96; Niger 0.39).

The world divides broadly into HICs (Global North), EDCs (e.g. Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia) and LIDCs (Global South — Niger, Chad, DRC).

Physical causes

  • Climate: tropical climates suffer from malaria/dengue, droughts and unreliable rainfall, reducing agricultural productivity (Sahel).
  • Landlocked location: 16 of the world's 20 lowest-HDI nations are in Africa; many landlocked (Mali, Chad), facing high transport costs to ports.
  • Natural hazards: repeated earthquakes (Haiti 2010), cyclones (Bangladesh) divert investment from development to recovery.
  • Resources: countries with valuable resources (oil — Saudi Arabia) can develop fast, but those with few resources or only low-value primary products struggle.

Historical causes — colonialism

European colonialism (16th–20th centuries) shaped today's inequalities:

  • Resources and people were extracted (slave trade displaced 12+ million Africans).
  • Borders were imposed, dividing ethnic groups → instability after independence (Rwanda, Sudan, DRC).
  • Economies were locked into single-commodity exports (Ghana — cocoa; Zambia — copper).

Economic causes

  • Trade patterns: LIDCs export low-value primary goods, import high-value manufactures → unfavourable terms of trade.
  • Debt: colonial-era and IMF/World Bank loans saddle LIDCs with debt servicing — Ghana spends ~40% of revenue on debt.
  • TNCs can drive growth (China) or extract profits with minimal local benefit (Niger Delta oil).

Political causes

Corruption (DRC), conflict (Yemen, Syria), weak governance and lack of investment in education/health all entrench underdevelopment.

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Practice questions

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  1. Question 14 marks

    Indicators of development (4 marks)

    Explain why a single indicator such as GDP per capita is not a reliable measure of development. [4 marks]

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  2. Question 28 marks

    Examine causes of uneven development (8 marks)

    Examine the historical reasons for uneven development between countries. [8 marks]

    Level mark scheme:

    LevelMarksDescriptor
    L11–3Simple statements about colonialism/history; no examples; little linkage to development outcomes.
    L24–6Some explanation of historical factors with named examples; partial linkage to current development.
    L37–8Detailed examination; multiple historical factors evidenced with named country examples; clear linkage to specific development outcomes today; balanced conclusion.

    Indicative content:

    • Slave trade (16th–19th c.): removed ~12 million working-age Africans → demographic collapse, weakened state institutions, intergenerational poverty across West Africa (Ghana, Senegal).
    • Resource extraction: Belgian Congo's rubber/ivory/cobalt economy left no industrial base; today the DRC is a major mineral exporter but among the lowest-HDI nations.
    • Imposed borders: Berlin Conference (1884–85) drew arbitrary borders dividing ethnic groups → Rwanda genocide (1994), Sudan/South Sudan war.
    • Single-commodity dependency: Ghana's colonial cocoa economy still represents ~30% of exports → vulnerable to price shocks.
    • Independence transitions: sudden withdrawal often left fragile institutions (Belgian Congo's 16 graduates at independence in 1960).
    • Conclusion: colonial history is one of several intertwined causes; physical/political factors also matter, but the persistence of trade patterns, borders and institutions established under colonialism is a primary driver of contemporary inequality.
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  3. Question 312 marks

    Evaluate causes of global inequality (12 marks)

    Evaluate the extent to which physical factors are responsible for uneven development globally. [12 marks]

    Level mark scheme:

    LevelMarksDescriptor
    L11–4Simple description of physical factors; no balance; weak examples.
    L25–8Discussion of physical AND human factors with examples; partial evaluation.
    L39–12Balanced evaluation; multiple categories of factor (physical, historical, economic, political) examined with named examples; weighted judgement on the relative role of physical factors; justified conclusion.

    Indicative content (physical factors matter):

    • Landlocked location → 16/20 lowest HDI nations in Africa, many landlocked (Chad, Niger).
    • Tropical disease burden — malaria still kills ~600,000/year, mostly children, hampering productivity.
    • Hazard frequency — Bangladesh's repeated cyclones cost ~$1 bn/year.

    Indicative content (other factors are equally / more important):

    • Botswana (landlocked, tropical) has medium HDI (0.71) thanks to good governance and diamonds — physical factors not destiny.
    • Singapore (small island, no resources, tropical) is HIC because of trade, education and policy choices.
    • Colonial history: DRC, mineral-rich, but weak institutions → low HDI.
    • Trade rules: LIDCs face EU/US tariffs on processed goods → locked into low-value exports.

    Conclusion: Physical factors create initial constraints but do not determine outcomes — history, governance, trade patterns and political choices override them. The strongest answer recognises that physical, historical and political factors interact: countries which face all three constraints simultaneously (Chad, DRC) are most likely to be LIDCs today.

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Flashcards

T2.2 — Patterns and causes of uneven development

7-card SR deck for Edexcel Geography (leaves batch 1) topic T2.2

7 cards · spaced repetition (SM-2)

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