Pollution and Waste

Why is Pollution a Global Concern?

Pollution is one of the greatest threats to environmental and human health globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that pollution causes 9 million premature deaths per year — more than AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined. Pollution is primarily driven by industrialisation, urbanisation, consumerism and inadequate waste management.

E-Waste (Electronic Waste)

What is E-Waste?

E-waste refers to discarded electronic devices: smartphones, computers, televisions, fridges, cables and batteries. It is the world's fastest-growing waste stream.

Scale and Distribution

• Approximately 53.6 million tonnes of e-waste generated globally per year (2019); growing ~2 million tonnes/year
• Only 17.4% is formally documented as collected and properly recycled
• Most e-waste is generated in Asia (most people, most consumption growth), but HICs like the US and Europe generate the most per capita

The Problem of E-Waste Export

Rich countries export e-waste (often illegally, labelled as "second-hand goods") to LICs:

• Agbogbloshie, Accra (Ghana): one of the world's largest informal e-waste dumps. Workers (including children) dismantle electronics by hand and burn cables to extract copper → releases toxic fumes (lead, mercury, cadmium, dioxins)
• Health impacts: lead poisoning, respiratory disease, cancer, neurological damage
• Groundwater contamination: toxic metals leach into soil and water → poisoned water supplies

Solutions to E-Waste

• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): manufacturers legally required to take back and properly recycle old products (EU WEEE Directive — Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment)
• Formal e-waste recycling infrastructure: building safe, certified recycling facilities in both HICs and LICs
• Design for longevity and repairability (right to repair movement; EU legislation 2021)
• Consumer education: use devices longer; return to manufacturer

Plastic Pollution in the Oceans

Scale

• Approximately 8 million tonnes of plastic enter the oceans every year
• By 2050, there may be more plastic (by weight) in the ocean than fish
• Currently an estimated 150 million tonnes of plastic already in the oceans

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch

An accumulation of plastic debris in the North Pacific Ocean, held in place by ocean currents (gyres). Approximately 1.6 million km² — three times the size of France. The plastic degrades into microplastics (fragments <5 mm) which:

• Are ingested by marine life (fish, seabirds, whales) → starvation, toxic accumulation
• Enter the food chain → found in fish eaten by humans; in bottled water and table salt
• Take 400–1,000 years to fully degrade

Sources of Ocean Plastic

• Single-use plastic (packaging, bottles, straws, bags) — a dominant source
• Microbeads: tiny plastic particles in cosmetics (now banned in the UK and EU)
• Fishing gear ("ghost gear"): lost or abandoned nets — entangle marine mammals, sea turtles
• Waste dumping and poor waste management in LICs, especially in coastal areas; also from rivers (the Yangtze, Ganges and Yellow River are among the world's largest plastic carriers to the ocean)

Solutions

• Banning single-use plastics: UK banned plastic straws, cotton buds and stirrers (2020); EU Single-Use Plastics Directive (2021)
• Ocean clean-up technology: The Ocean Cleanup project uses booms to collect surface plastic in the Pacific
• Improved waste management in LICs: investment in collection systems; education
• Producer responsibility and circular economy: design products for reuse and recyclability

Urban Air Pollution

What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the air at concentrations that affect human health:

• Particulate matter (PM₂.₅, PM₁₀): tiny particles from vehicle exhausts, industry and cooking fires → penetrate deep into lungs and bloodstream
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂): from diesel vehicles and power stations → aggravates respiratory disease
• Ozone (O₃): formed by chemical reactions in sunlight; high-level smog in cities
• Sulphur dioxide (SO₂): from coal burning → acid rain; industrial smog

Global Scale

• WHO estimates ~7 million premature deaths per year from air pollution
• 99% of the global population breathes air that exceeds WHO guidelines for at least one pollutant
• Most affected: South and East Asia (Delhi, Beijing), parts of Africa (Lagos, Kinshasa), Middle East

UK Urban Air Pollution

Despite significant improvements since the 1950s (Clean Air Acts), UK cities still breach WHO PM₂.₅ and NO₂ limits:

• Diesel vehicles are the primary source of NO₂ in cities; London exceeds NO₂ limits on many streets
• London ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zone, 2019; expanded 2023): charges older, more polluting vehicles to enter central/Greater London → significant reduction in NO₂ in affected areas

London Smog 1952: a dense, lethal fog of SO₂ and particulates from coal fires and industry; killed 4,000+ people directly; led to the Clean Air Act 1956 — a turning point in UK air quality legislation.

Solutions to Urban Air Pollution

• Low/Ultra Low Emission Zones (LEZ/ULEZ): restrict or charge polluting vehicles in city centres
• Transition to electric vehicles (EVs): zero tailpipe emissions; UK ban on new petrol/diesel car sales from 2035
• Active travel infrastructure: cycling lanes, pedestrianisation → fewer cars
• Clean cookstoves in LICs: replacing open fires with efficient stoves → major reduction in household air pollution (2nd biggest cause of air pollution death globally)
• Industrial regulation: emission limits on factories, power stations

The Interconnection of Pollution Types

All three pollution types share common drivers:

• Globalisation and consumerism: more goods produced, consumed, discarded → more waste and pollution
• Inadequate regulation and enforcement, especially in LICs
• Global inequity: pollution is generated in HICs but often dumped or most severely affects LICs and vulnerable communities (environmental justice)

WJEC Exam Tips

• Know specific examples for each pollution type: Agbogbloshie (e-waste), Great Pacific Garbage Patch (ocean plastic), London ULEZ (urban air)
• Environmental justice is a key concept: polluting industries and waste dumps disproportionately affect poor and marginalised communities
• Evaluation questions often ask about the effectiveness of solutions — give evidence (e.g., ULEZ NO₂ reduction data) and limitations (e.g., only affects a small area; diesel vehicles still used in rural areas)