The Mughal Empire 1526–1707

This is one of the optional non-British depth studies for OCR Paper 2. The Mughal Empire at its height ruled most of the Indian subcontinent and was one of the largest, wealthiest and most sophisticated empires in the world. OCR examines leadership, religious policy, culture and the reasons for decline.

Foundation and Early Emperors

Babur (r.1526–30) — the founder

• Descended from both Timur (Tamerlane) and Genghis Khan.
• Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi (Sultan of Delhi) using cannon — new technology in India. This established the Mughal dynasty.
• Named after the Mongols (Mughal = Mongol in Persian).
• Babur wrote the Baburnama — a remarkably personal memoir; shows sophisticated cultured ruler alongside military conqueror.

Humayun (r.1530–40 / 1555–56)

• Lost the empire to the Suri dynasty (1540); spent 15 years in exile in Persia.
• Restored with Persian help (1555) but died shortly after (fell down library stairs).
• Significance: introduced Persian cultural influence (art, miniature painting) that shaped Mughal culture.

Akbar (r.1556–1605) — the greatest Mughal

The most admired and studied Mughal emperor:

• Extended empire to cover most of India.
• Religious tolerance (sulh-i-kul — "peace with all"): Akbar abolished the jizya (tax on non-Muslims); married Hindu Rajput princess Jodha Bai; included Hindus in senior government positions; held weekly religious debates (Ibadat Khana).
• Created the Din-i-Ilahi ("Divine Faith") — a syncretic court religion blending elements of Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Christianity; only about 18 nobles converted.
• Administrative reforms: divided empire into provinces (subas) governed by appointed administrators (subahdars) — efficient centralised government.
• Why was Akbar's tolerance significant? With 80% of his subjects Hindu, tolerance was practically necessary AND philosophically principled.

The Great Mughals: Jahangir and Shah Jahan

Jahangir (r.1605–27)

• Continued Akbar's tolerance.
• Famous for his memoirs (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) and patronage of miniature painting.
• Much real power held by wife Nur Jahan — one of the most powerful women in Mughal history.

Shah Jahan (r.1628–58)

• The "builder emperor": commissioned the Taj Mahal (1632–53) as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• Also built the Red Fort in Delhi and the Jama Masjid mosque.
• His massive building projects strained the treasury.
• Deposed (1658) by his son Aurangzeb; spent final years a prisoner in the Red Fort, said to have died gazing at the Taj Mahal across the river.

Aurangzeb (r.1658–1707) — expansion and decline

• Seized the throne from his father Shah Jahan; had his brothers killed.
• Extended the empire to its greatest territorial extent — but overstretched.
• Religious intolerance: reversed Akbar's policies — reimposed the jizya on non-Muslims; destroyed Hindu temples; banned music at court; attempted to enforce Islamic law.
• This provoked rebellions: Maratha Empire under Shivaji resisted Mughal expansion in the Deccan; Rajputs revolted.
• Died 1707 after nearly 50 years of costly wars; empire began to fragment.

Reasons for Mughal decline after 1707

• Costly wars: Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns (1680–1707) bankrupted the empire.
• Succession wars: Mughal princes routinely fought over the throne, weakening central authority.
• Religious rebellions: Aurangzeb's intolerance alienated the Hindu majority and fuelled the Maratha, Sikh and Rajput revolts.
• Regional powers: Maratha Empire, Sikh kingdoms and later the British East India Company filled the power vacuum.
• Court factionalism: Persian and Turanic noble factions competed, undermining administration.

Cultural achievements

• Architecture: Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (Akbar's new capital).
• Art: Mughal miniature painting — highly detailed, combining Persian and Indian styles.
• Literature: Persian court language; Babur and Jahangir wrote vivid memoirs.
• Music: Tansen (musician at Akbar's court) — classical music tradition.

Common OCR exam mistakes

1. Saying Din-i-Ilahi was a major religion — it was a small court movement; only c.18 nobles converted.
2. Confusing Akbar's religious tolerance with modern secular liberalism — it was pragmatic statecraft as well as principle.
3. Saying the British "caused" Mughal decline — the empire was already fragmenting; the British East India Company exploited the vacuum rather than creating it.
4. Forgetting to evaluate why Aurangzeb reversed Akbar's policies — religious conviction + military need for Islamic legitimacy vs the practical costs.