The Spanish Conquistadors 1519–1551

This is one of the optional non-British depth studies for OCR Paper 2. It covers the conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires — one of the most dramatic and controversial episodes of early modern history.

Background: the Americas before conquest

The Aztec Empire (Mexico)

• Capital: Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City) — built on a lake island; population c.250,000 (larger than any city in Europe at the time).
• Emperor was the paramount ruler; military power enforced tribute from conquered peoples.
• Religion: polytheist; human sacrifice (offered prisoners to the sun god Huitzilopochtli) — this shocked the Spanish and became a justification for conquest.
• Weaknesses: surrounding peoples resented Aztec tribute demands and were potential allies.

The Inca Empire (South America)

• Extended 4,000 km along the Andes — the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas.
• Highly organised: road system, quipu (knotted string records), relay runners.
• Weakness: civil war between Huáscar and Atahualpa (1527–32) had just ended — Atahualpa had won but the empire was divided and weary.

Hernán Cortés and the conquest of the Aztecs (1519–21)

• Cortés sailed from Cuba (1519) with c.500 men against the orders of the Cuban governor.
• La Malinche (Malintzin): Native woman who acted as translator and advisor — crucial to Cortés's success.
• Alliances with enemy peoples: Tlaxcalans (Aztec enemies) joined Cortés — giving him thousands of warriors.
• Meeting Moctezuma II (1519): Cortés entered Tenochtitlán peacefully; Moctezuma possibly saw him as a god (Quetzalcoatl) — disputed by historians.
• Moctezuma's death (1520): killed during the "Noche Triste" (Night of Sorrows) — Aztecs expelled the Spanish.
• Smallpox (1520): disease swept through Tenochtitlán, killing Moctezuma's successor — devastating the Aztec population.
• Siege of Tenochtitlán (1521): Cortés returned with Tlaxcalan allies; 80-day siege; city fell August 1521.

Francisco Pizarro and the conquest of the Incas (1532–33)

• Pizarro sailed with only 168 men (and 62 horses and some guns).
• Battle of Cajamarca (November 1532): Pizarro invited Atahualpa to a meeting; ambushed him; thousands of Incas killed; Atahualpa captured.
• Ransom: Atahualpa filled a room with gold and silver — the largest ransom in history — worth millions of dollars.
• Atahualpa was then strangled (July 1533) despite paying the ransom — Pizarro had him tried on trumped-up charges.
• Inca capital Cuzco captured (1533); resistance continued for decades.

Motives of the Conquistadors

OCR asks about motivations — always multiple:

• Gold and wealth: the primary personal motivation; conquistador means "conqueror" but gold was the driving force.
• God: genuine religious belief; spreading Christianity was a stated goal; priests accompanied every expedition; Requerimiento (legal document read to Native peoples requiring submission to the Spanish Crown and Church).
• Glory: honour, fame and social advancement for men of relatively modest origins.
• Adventure: the Spanish crown authorised private expeditions; men risked death for the chance of vast rewards.

Methods of conquest

• Military technology: guns, steel armour, horses (unknown in the Americas) — psychological shock.
• Disease: smallpox, measles, typhus — European diseases killed c.50–90% of Native American populations over the following century. The most devastating factor.
• Alliances: exploiting existing rivalries (Tlaxcalans vs Aztecs; Huáscar's faction vs Atahualpa).
• Psychological warfare: Cortés destroyed his ships to prevent retreat — no choice but to advance.
• Treachery: capturing Atahualpa after offering peace; executing him despite ransom.

Consequences of the conquest

For Native Americans

• Population collapse: estimated 90% population loss in the Caribbean within 50 years of contact. Mexico: from c.25 million (1519) to c.1 million (1605).
• Destruction of cultures: temples destroyed; texts burned; social structures dismantled.
• Encomienda system: Native people assigned to Spanish settlers as forced labour.
• Slavery: illegal for Native Americans from 1542 (Las Casas's campaign) but de facto continued.

For Spain and Europe

• Vast silver and gold wealth (especially Potosí silver mines in Bolivia) transformed the Spanish economy — and eventually caused inflation across Europe.
• Opened up European colonisation of the Americas.
• The Black Legend: Spanish were criticised across Europe for brutality; Bartolomé de las Casas (A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, 1542) documented atrocities and campaigned for Native American rights.

Common OCR exam mistakes

1. Saying technology alone explains conquest — disease was probably more important; alliances were crucial.
2. Treating "God, Gold and Glory" as equal motivations — most historians emphasise gold as the primary personal driver.
3. Ignoring the perspective of Native peoples — OCR rewards awareness of multiple viewpoints.
4. Saying the conquest was "complete" by 1521/33 — resistance continued for decades; Inca resistance until 1572.