Personal Rule to Restoration 1629–1660

This is one of the optional non-British period studies for OCR Paper 2. It covers one of the most dramatic periods of English (and British) history: royal tyranny, civil war, regicide, republic, military dictatorship and eventual restoration.

The Personal Rule (1629–1640)

Charles I dismissed Parliament in 1629 after repeated clashes and ruled without it for 11 years — the Personal Rule (opponents called it the "Eleven Years' Tyranny").

Why did Charles rule without Parliament?

• Parliament refused to grant him tax revenues without restrictions on royal power.
• Charles believed in the Divine Right of Kings — he answered only to God, not Parliament.

How did Charles raise money without Parliament?

• Ship Money: traditionally a coastal tax; Charles extended it to inland counties (1634). Legal but deeply resented — John Hampden refused to pay (1637) and became a hero.
• Forest fines: fined landowners whose estates had encroached on royal forests.
• Knighthood fines: fined men who had failed to be knighted at coronation.

Religious policy: Laudianism

• Archbishop William Laud imposed High Church (near-Catholic) practices on the Church of England — decorated altars, vestments, bowing.
• 1637: attempted to impose the Anglican prayer book on Scotland — Scots rioted, formed the National Covenant (1638) and invaded England (Bishops' Wars).
• Charles needed money to fight Scotland → had to recall Parliament.

The Road to Civil War (1640–1642)

• Short Parliament (April–May 1640): Charles recalled Parliament; Parliament refused to fund the war unless grievances addressed; Charles dissolved it.
• Long Parliament (from November 1640): recalled after another Scottish defeat; took decisive action:
  • Abolished Ship Money and other illegal taxes.
  • Triennial Act (1641): Parliament must meet every three years.
  • Grand Remonstrance (1641): list of Charles's misdeeds; passed by only 11 votes — Parliament itself divided.
  • January 1642: Charles attempted to arrest five members of Parliament (Pym, Hampden, etc.) — they had fled; Charles left London.
  • August 1642: Charles raised his standard at Nottingham — Civil War began.

The Civil War (1642–1646 / second war 1648)

First Civil War (1642–46)

• Royalists ("Cavaliers"): northern and western England; Catholic and Anglican support.
• Parliamentarians ("Roundheads"): south-east, London; Puritan and urban support.
• Key battles: Marston Moor (1644) — Parliamentary victory; Naseby (1645) — decisive Parliamentary victory.
• New Model Army (1645): professional army under Fairfax and Cromwell; better trained, more disciplined than either side's previous forces.
• Charles surrendered to the Scots (1646); handed over to Parliament; escaped, formed alliance with Scots — second Civil War (1648); defeated again.

The Execution of Charles I (1649)

• Pride's Purge (December 1648): New Model Army Colonel Pride excluded Presbyterian MPs from Parliament, leaving only those willing to try the King (Rump Parliament).
• Trial of Charles I (January 1649): Charles refused to recognise the court's legitimacy ("no earthly power can justly call me in question").
• 30 January 1649: Charles I executed outside Whitehall — the first time a reigning English monarch had been tried and executed by his own subjects.

The Commonwealth and Protectorate (1649–1660)

The Commonwealth (1649–53)

• England governed without a king by the Rump Parliament.
• Cromwell conquered Ireland (1649–50) — brutal campaigns (Drogheda massacre) suppressed royalist resistance.
• Cromwell defeated the Scots at Dunbar (1650) and Worcester (1651).

The Protectorate (1653–58)

• Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament (1653) — "Take away that bauble!" — appointed Lord Protector.
• Tried various constitutional experiments (Nominated/Barebones Parliament; written constitutions).
• Effective military ruler — kept order with the Major-Generals (1655–56).
• Cromwell died September 1658; son Richard succeeded but resigned within months.

The Restoration (1660)

After a period of chaos following Cromwell's death, General George Monck (Commander in Scotland) marched south; Parliament recalled; Charles II invited to return.

• Declaration of Breda (April 1660): Charles II promised pardon, religious toleration and parliamentary settlement.
• May 1660: Charles II restored as King — the Restoration.
• Why did the republic fail? No political consensus; Cromwell's rule too personal and military; religious diversity could not be managed without tolerance; many wanted traditional kingship.

Common OCR exam mistakes

1. Saying Charles I was executed because he lost the Civil War — he lost the war but negotiations continued for years; execution came after Pride's Purge and the second Civil War (1648) hardened attitudes.
2. Confusing the Commonwealth (republic 1649–53) with the Protectorate (Cromwell as Lord Protector 1653–58).
3. Saying Cromwell wanted to be king — he was offered the crown (1657) and refused it.
4. Forgetting the Scottish dimension: Scotland's resistance to Laud's prayer book triggered the recall of Parliament that led to the Civil War.