The Elizabethans 1580–1603

This is one of the optional British depth studies for OCR Paper 3. If your centre chose this option, expect an historical environment site study question (AO3 + AO4) alongside extended essay questions. The Elizabethan period is rich in personality, politics and international conflict.

Elizabeth I: context and challenges

Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603) inherited a kingdom divided by religion after the reigns of Edward VI (Protestant) and Mary I (Catholic). Her key challenge: how to make England stable without alienating either religious faction.

Personal position

• Never married — the "Virgin Queen". Suitors included Philip II of Spain, Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester), and others.
• Marriage was a political tool: she used it to keep potential allies hoping, never committing.
• Her gender was used against her by critics — she countered by presenting herself as a quasi-divine figure ("I have the heart and stomach of a king").

The Elizabethan religious settlement

Elizabeth's approach was deliberately ambiguous to allow both Catholics and moderate Protestants to conform:

• Act of Supremacy (1559): Elizabeth became "Supreme Governor" of the Church (not "Head" — more moderate phrasing).
• Act of Uniformity (1559): the revised Book of Common Prayer reintroduced; church attendance compulsory; fines for absence (recusancy fines).
• 39 Articles (1563): defined the doctrine of the Church of England — Protestant but ambiguous enough for moderate Catholics.

Problems with the settlement

• Catholic threat: Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth (1570) — released her Catholic subjects from obedience; made Catholics potential traitors.
• Puritan threat: radical Protestants wanted further reform — simpler worship, no bishops.

Catholic plots against Elizabeth

The presence of Mary Queen of Scots (Elizabeth's cousin and a Catholic claimant) created a constant threat:

• Ridolfi Plot (1571): plot to replace Elizabeth with Mary, backed by Spain and the Pope; exposed and leader Roberto Ridolfi fled; Mary implicated but not executed.
• Throckmorton Plot (1583): similar plan; Francis Throckmorton tortured and executed; Spanish ambassador expelled.
• Babington Plot (1586): Anthony Babington plotted to assassinate Elizabeth and put Mary on the throne; Mary's letters (coded) authorised the plot; she was caught via spy network of Francis Walsingham.
• Execution of Mary Queen of Scots (1587): reluctant decision by Elizabeth; Mary executed at Fotheringhay Castle. This outraged Philip II of Spain — a factor in the Armada.

The Spanish Armada 1588

Why did Philip II send the Armada?

• England was interfering in the Spanish Netherlands (Protestant rebels supported by Elizabeth).
• English privateers (Drake, Hawkins) had raided Spanish treasure ships and ports (Drake's raid on Cadiz, 1587 — "singeing the King of Spain's beard").
• Execution of Mary Queen of Scots (1587) removed his preferred Catholic claimant.
• Philip believed God was on his side — he would restore Catholicism to England.

The Armada campaign:

• 130 Spanish ships, c.30,000 soldiers.
• Plan: sail to the Netherlands, pick up Parma's army, invade England.
• Problems for Spain: Parma's army couldn't rendezvous; English "fire ships" at Calais panicked the fleet; storms (English weather helped) scattered and wrecked many ships.
• English success factors: better, more manoeuvrable ships; superior cannons; Drake and Howard's tactics; weather.
• Result: England survived; about 50–60 Spanish ships lost; many men died from storms, starvation, disease.

Significance: confirmed Protestant England's survival; boosted Elizabeth's prestige enormously; "God blew and they were scattered" — religious interpretation.

Voyages of discovery and exploration

Elizabeth's reign saw significant English maritime expansion:

• Francis Drake: circumnavigated the globe 1577–80 — the second man to do so; knighted by Elizabeth on his return.
• Walter Raleigh: attempted to establish the Roanoke Colony in America (1585–87) — failed ("Lost Colony").
• John Hawkins: organised slave-trading voyages to West Africa and the Americas — England's early involvement in the transatlantic slave trade.
• East India Company (founded 1600, end of reign): began English trade with Asia.

Exploration was motivated by: trade profits, rivalry with Spain, Protestant privateering (raiding Catholic ships), and genuine scientific curiosity.

Elizabethan society

• Rich and poor: growing gap; enclosures continued; Poor Laws (1597, 1601) attempted to manage poverty.
• Culture: Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser; the Globe Theatre (1599); portrait painting flourished.
• Women: Elizabeth as ruler was an exception; women had very limited rights; witchcraft trials continued.

Common OCR exam mistakes

1. Confusing the plots — Ridolfi (1571), Throckmorton (1583), Babington (1586) must be kept distinct.
2. Saying Elizabeth was enthusiastic about executing Mary — she delayed for months and was reportedly distressed; the decision was politically forced.
3. On the Armada: saying England "won a great naval victory" — the English fleet didn't sink that many ships; weather did most of the damage.
4. On the religious settlement: saying it satisfied everyone — it satisfied most moderates but alienated both hardcore Catholics and Puritans.