The Development of Wales and England in the Inter-War Years 1919–1939

The Impact of the First World War

Over 280,000 Welsh men served in WWI; approximately 35,000 died. Wales had supplied coal, steel and slate for the war effort, and its heavy industries boomed. But peace brought contraction, not prosperity.

The "land fit for heroes": Prime Minister Lloyd George (himself a Welshman from Llanystumdwy) promised returning soldiers a better society. In reality, economic slump quickly followed.

Economic Depression in Wales and England

Wales was particularly hard hit by the inter-war depression because its economy depended overwhelmingly on coal mining and steel — both of which collapsed after 1920.

The South Wales coalfield:

• Coal exports fell sharply after WWI — the Royal Navy switched from coal to oil; Germany competed with exports.
• The 1921 lockout (after mine owners tried to cut wages) led to the first major industrial dispute.
• By 1932, unemployment in some South Wales valleys reached 70% — Merthyr Tydfil, Rhondda, Aberdare.
• The Means Test (introduced 1931) required unemployed families to declare all assets before receiving relief — widely resented as humiliating and intrusive. Officials could enter homes and demand that furniture be sold.

The General Strike (1926): The TUC called a general strike in support of the miners (who faced wage cuts and longer hours). It lasted 9 days (3–12 May 1926). The government used volunteers and army to maintain essential services. The strike was called off; miners stayed out for months before being forced back on worse terms. Wales was particularly militant in this dispute.

The Jarrow March (1936): Jarrow (North-East England) had 70% unemployment after the closure of Palmers' shipyard. 200 men marched 300 miles to London to present a petition to Parliament. The government refused to receive the petition and unemployment stayed high — but the march became a symbol of the human cost of the depression.

Welsh Identity and the Welsh Language

The inter-war period saw important developments in Welsh national and cultural identity:

• Plaid Cymru founded 1925: The Welsh nationalist party, founded partly to protect the Welsh language and culture, which were perceived as under threat from anglicisation and mass media.
• Welsh language decline: Census data showed Welsh speakers declining — from 977,000 (1921) to 909,000 (1931). Migration out of Wales (especially from the depressed valleys) reduced Welsh-speaking communities. English-medium media (radio, cinema) accelerated decline.
• BBC Welsh broadcasting: Welsh-language programming on the BBC began in the 1930s, though limited — a contested concession.
• Saunders Lewis: Co-founder of Plaid Cymru; arson attack on RAF bombing school at Penyberth (Llŷn Peninsula) in 1936, with two colleagues, to protest against the "anglicisation" of Wales. Lewis and colleagues tried at the Old Bailey (a deliberate insult, since a Welsh jury could not agree a verdict). Sentenced to 9 months.

Social Conditions in Wales and England

Housing and public health: Inter-war slum clearance programmes built council housing (e.g. Becontree estate in East London, the largest council estate in the world). Wales lagged — valleys housing remained overcrowded and damp.

Health: Tuberculosis (TB) was widespread in Welsh valleys — linked to damp housing, poor nutrition, and coal dust. The Rhondda had some of the worst TB rates in Britain.

Infant mortality: Remained high in depressed areas. The contrast between prosperous South-East England (car ownership, new factories) and the depressed coalfields was stark.

The "two Englands" debate: J.B. Priestley's English Journey (1934) identified three Englands: Old England (countryside), Industrial England (the depressed North), and New England (suburban, consumer society of the South-East). Wales was similarly divided.

Government Responses

The National Government (1931–): Coalition formed to deal with the financial crisis; introduced austerity — cut government spending, salaries, and unemployment benefit. The Means Test. Did little for the depressed regions.

The Special Areas Act (1934): Designated South Wales, North-East England, Scotland and West Cumberland as "Special Areas" — some government investment, but limited impact. Critics called it "too little, too late."

Rearmament (from 1935): As the threat from Nazi Germany grew, rearmament brought new investment to some regions, including new munitions factories in Wales. By 1938–39, unemployment in Wales was falling — but due to the approach of war, not government economic policy.

WJEC Exam Technique

This topic is distinctively Welsh — examiners expect awareness of the Welsh coalfield, Plaid Cymru, Welsh language decline, and figures like Lloyd George and Saunders Lewis. Essays should demonstrate understanding of the particular impact of the depression on Wales as well as the broader British experience.