Pacifism, just war theory and holy war

Theme D2 goes deeper into the ethics of war: the just war tradition, the pacifist alternative, holy war, weapons of mass destruction, and religious peace-making.

Pacifism

Pacifism is the belief that violence and war are always morally wrong. All disputes should be resolved through peaceful means.

Types:

• Absolute pacifism — war is never justified, regardless of consequences (Quakers, Jehovah's Witnesses).
• Conditional/relative pacifism — war is generally wrong but may be permitted in extreme circumstances.
• Nuclear pacifism — accepts conventional war but rejects nuclear weapons as disproportionate.

Christian pacifism:

• Jesus taught: "Blessed are the peacemakers" (Matthew 5:9); "Love your enemies" (Matthew 5:44).
• Martin Luther King Jr. drew on the Sermon on the Mount to advocate non-violent resistance (Letter from Birmingham Jail, 1963).
• Quakers (Religious Society of Friends): God is in every person (that of God in every one); violence against any person violates the divine. They work with the ICRC and Amnesty International.

Criticisms of pacifism:

• Does non-resistance enable evil? Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler is the classic example.
• Dietrich Bonhoeffer (German Lutheran pastor) was initially pacifist but joined a plot to assassinate Hitler — arguing that in some circumstances violence is the lesser evil.

Just War Theory

Rooted in Augustine (4th century) and Thomas Aquinas (Summa Theologiae, 13th century). Codified in modern international law (Geneva Conventions, UN Charter).

Traditional criteria (Jus ad Bellum — right to go to war):

1. Just cause — self-defence, protecting the innocent, punishing injustice.
2. Legitimate authority — declared by a lawful government.
3. Right intention — peace as the goal; not revenge or conquest.
4. Last resort — all peaceful alternatives exhausted.
5. Reasonable chance of success — no point in hopeless fighting.
6. Proportionality — harm caused must not exceed the good achieved.

Conduct of war (Jus in Bello):

• Non-combatant immunity — civilians must not be targeted.
• Proportionate means — no excessive force.
• No use of evil methods (torture, chemical weapons).

Catholic application: The Catechism (§2307–2317) upholds just war theory while stressing the duty to seek peace; Pope John Paul II argued that wars of aggression are "crimes against God and humanity."

Islamic parallels: The conditions for lesser jihad are essentially identical to just war criteria (see 3.2.D.1). Islam adds: trees and crops must not be destroyed; captives treated with respect.

Holy war

A holy war is a war fought for religious purposes — believed to be commanded by God and earning spiritual merit for participants.

• Christianity — the Crusades (1096–1291): Pope Urban II called the First Crusade to recapture the Holy Land. Knights were promised indulgences. Today, most Christians regard the Crusades as a distortion of Christianity.
• Islam — the concept of qital (fighting): The Qur'an permits fighting to defend Islam and the oppressed. However, mainstream Islam does not declare "holy war" in the popular sense. ISIS and Al-Qaeda have claimed holy war status for their violence — mainstream Islam rejects this.
• Key distinction: Islam does not view violent conquest as inherently holy. The umma (community) must be protected, but offensive war for religious expansion is not sanctioned.

Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)

WMDs include nuclear, biological and chemical weapons. They are characterised by their inability to discriminate between combatants and civilians.

• Just war perspective: WMDs cannot be used in a way that satisfies the criteria of non-combatant immunity or proportionality — therefore they can never be morally used under just war theory.
• Nuclear deterrence: Some argue that possessing nuclear weapons without using them deters war (mutually assured destruction — MAD). Pope Francis explicitly called for the abolition of nuclear weapons (Hiroshima, 2019).
• Catholic: The Catechism (§2314–2315) condemns the use of WMDs as a war crime; nuclear deterrence is tolerated only as a transitional measure while working towards disarmament.
• Islam: Scholars broadly agree WMDs cannot satisfy Islamic conditions for war — they are indiscriminate and cause unnecessary suffering.

Religious peace-making

• Community of Sant'Egidio (Rome): Catholic lay community that has brokered peace agreements (Mozambique 1992, ongoing work in South Sudan and CAR).
• Quakers: International mediation; Amnesty International co-founded by a Quaker.
• Islamic teaching: Salam (peace) is the goal of all human relations. Sulh (reconciliation) and 'adl (justice) are central Islamic values.
• Archbishop Desmond Tutu: Used Christian principles of truth, reconciliation and ubuntu ("I am because we are") to guide post-apartheid South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

Examiner tips

• Know all six jus ad bellum criteria — they appear in mark schemes.
• Contrast absolute vs relative pacifism; name Quakers and Bonhoeffer.
• For WMDs, apply just war criteria (non-combatant immunity, proportionality) directly.
• Cite Laudato Si' or Pope Francis's 2019 Hiroshima statement for Catholic opposition to nuclear weapons.