Production processes: job, batch and flow

Production processes are the methods a business uses to convert inputs (labour, raw materials, capital) into outputs (goods or services). The right method depends on the type of product, the volume needed and the market expected. AQA expects you to know the three main methods, their costs, quality and flexibility implications.

1. Job production

A single product made from start to finish to a specific customer order. Each item is unique.

Examples: bespoke wedding dress, custom-built kitchen, architect-designed house, hand-crafted guitar, made-to-measure suit.

Characteristics:

• High labour input.
• Highly skilled staff.
• Low volume.
• Long production time per unit.
• Customer involvement throughout.

Advantages:

• Customisation — exactly what the customer wants.
• Premium pricing — customers pay more.
• Higher staff motivation — varied, skilled work.
• High quality — attention to detail.

Disadvantages:

• High cost per unit — labour-intensive.
• No economies of scale — can't bulk-buy materials.
• Slow — limits how many customers can be served.
• Hard to expand — depends on skilled staff.

2. Batch production

The product is made in groups (batches), each batch finishing one stage before the next batch starts. Equipment is reset between batches.

Examples: bakery (a batch of granary loaves, then a batch of sourdough); pharmaceutical pills (one batch of one drug, then a batch of another); furniture (10 chairs of one design, then 10 of another); clothing manufacturer (size-runs).

Characteristics:

• Medium volume.
• Some standardisation within a batch.
• Setup and changeover time between batches.

Advantages:

• Some variety — different products from same equipment.
• Lower unit cost than job — efficiency within batch.
• Responds to demand fluctuations — make more of what's selling.
• Spreads risk — multiple product lines.

Disadvantages:

• Setup and changeover costs — downtime between batches.
• Stock building between stages — ties up cash.
• Quality varies between batches.
• Less flexible than job — can't easily customise.

3. Flow production

A continuous production line — products move through a series of operations without stopping. Each station does one task.

Examples: car assembly (Toyota, Nissan), bottled water (Buxton, Highland Spring), breakfast cereal (Kellogg's), oil refining, electricity generation.

Characteristics:

• Very high volume.
• Highly automated.
• Standardised products.
• 24/7 operation common.
• Heavy capital investment.

Advantages:

• Very low unit cost — economies of scale, automation.
• Fast — high throughput.
• Consistent quality — standardised process.
• Low labour cost per unit — robots and automation replace many roles.

Disadvantages:

• High initial cost — factory, robots, conveyors. Tesla's Berlin Gigafactory cost €5 bn+.
• Inflexible — small changes (a new model) cost millions and take months.
• Breakdowns shut everything — single point of failure.
• Boring, low-skill jobs — repetitive, low motivation.
• Hard to differentiate — products commoditised.

How method affects key outcomes

Outcome	Job	Batch	Flow
Cost per unit	Highest	Medium	Lowest
Quality	Highest (custom)	Medium-high	Consistent (high if good design)
Flexibility	Highest	Medium	Lowest
Speed	Slowest	Medium	Fastest
Volume	Lowest	Medium	Highest
Skill level needed	Highest	Medium	Lowest

Modern variations

Cell production

Workers grouped in cells completing whole sub-assemblies. Combines flow efficiency with batch flexibility. Used in modern car factories.

Mass customisation

Flow-line efficiency with customisable options at certain stages. Examples: Dell laptops (choose RAM, storage, colour), Subway sandwiches.

Lean production

Reduces waste — JIT, Kaizen (continuous improvement), Total Quality Management. Toyota Production System is the original.

Choosing the right method

Factors to consider:

• Customer expectations — bespoke or standard?
• Volume — how many will sell?
• Margin — premium or low-cost?
• Skill base — craftspeople or operators?
• Capital available — flow needs huge upfront investment.
• Speed of market — fashion shifts vs stable products.

Real-world examples

• Aston Martin Valkyrie — 150 cars, hand-built (job production). Price: £2.5 m+.
• Greggs sausage rolls — millions made in batches across regional bakeries.
• Toyota Burnaston (UK) — flow production. ~150 000 cars/year on a continuous assembly line.

Examiner tips

When asked to recommend a production method, match it to the product and market. A wedding dress is job; biscuits are batch; bottled water is flow. Always justify with cost, quality and volume considerations.