Troubles at home and abroad

Elizabeth's reign was shadowed by religious division, foreign threat and dynastic uncertainty. Three storylines dominate this topic: the religious settlement of 1559 and its strain; the Catholic plots centred on Mary Queen of Scots; and the Spanish Armada of 1588.

The religious settlement 1559

Elizabeth inherited a divided realm — Mary I had restored Catholicism with persecution; Edward VI had pushed radical Protestantism. Her Settlement aimed at a moderate Protestantism most could accept.

Two key Acts:

• Act of Supremacy 1559 — Elizabeth as Supreme Governor (not Head — concession to Catholics) of the Church of England. Oath of loyalty for officials.
• Act of Uniformity 1559 — single Book of Common Prayer (in English); compulsory church attendance (1 shilling fine for absence).

The Settlement was deliberately ambiguous:

• Vestments — clergy still wore priestly robes (annoyed Puritans).
• Communion — wording allowed both Catholic and Protestant interpretation.
• Bishops retained — Catholic structure, Protestant doctrine.

This via media (middle way) angered both wings — but pleased the moderate majority.

Catholic threats

Catholic England (perhaps 30% of population in 1558) shrank but did not vanish.

• 1568 — Mary Queen of Scots arrived in England fleeing Scottish rebellion. Imprisoned by Elizabeth — but became a Catholic figurehead.
• 1569 — Northern Rising / Rising of the Northern Earls — Catholic earls of Northumberland and Westmorland rebelled. Crushed; 800 executed.
• 1570 — Pope Pius V issued the bull Regnans in Excelsis — excommunicating Elizabeth, declaring her deposed, releasing Catholics from loyalty.
• 1571 — Ridolfi Plot — banker Roberto Ridolfi conspired with Spain, Pope, Norfolk to depose Elizabeth and crown Mary. Foiled; Norfolk executed.
• 1583 — Throckmorton Plot — Francis Throckmorton plotted French invasion. Walsingham's spies caught him.
• 1586 — Babington Plot — Anthony Babington conspired with Mary Queen of Scots to assassinate Elizabeth. Walsingham intercepted Mary's letters.

Mary Queen of Scots — the long crisis

Mary, granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, was next in line to the English throne after Elizabeth (or, according to Catholics, the rightful queen, since Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was Catholic-invalid).

Mary's biography:

• Born 1542; Queen of Scotland age 6 days.
• Married Francis II of France 1558 (briefly Queen of France).
• Returned to Scotland 1561 after husband's death.
• Unpopular — Catholic in Protestant Scotland.
• Married Lord Darnley (1565) — murdered 1567.
• Married James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell — accused of Darnley's murder.
• Forced to abdicate 1567; fled to England 1568.

Imprisoned 19 years across various castles. Catholic plots centred on her. Trial at Fotheringhay 1586 over Babington Plot — found guilty.

Elizabeth hesitated for months — reluctant to execute an anointed monarch — but signed the death warrant. Mary executed 8 February 1587 at Fotheringhay. Three blows to behead her; her wig fell off; her dog hid in her skirts.

The Spanish threat builds 1568–88

Reasons Spain became hostile:

• Religion — Philip II of Spain saw himself as champion of Catholic Europe.
• Trade — English "sea dogs" (Drake, Hawkins) raided Spanish treasure ships.
• Netherlands — Elizabeth supported Dutch Protestants against Spanish rule. Treaty of Nonsuch 1585 — sent English troops under Leicester.
• Mary's execution 1587 — Philip's pretext to invade.

The Spanish Armada 1588

Philip II planned a vast invasion: 130 ships, 30,000 soldiers under Duke of Medina Sidonia. They would sail to the Netherlands, collect the Duke of Parma's veteran army, and invade Kent.

Why the Armada failed:

1. English ships and tactics — smaller, faster, more manoeuvrable, with longer-range cannon. Drake, Howard, Hawkins on the English side.
2. Bad communications — Medina Sidonia could not coordinate with Parma.
3. Fireships at Calais (28 July 1588) — eight burning English ships sent into the Spanish anchorage broke their formation.
4. Battle of Gravelines (29 July) — English bombarded broken formation. Several Spanish ships sunk or captured.
5. The Protestant Wind — the Spanish fled north around Scotland and Ireland; storms wrecked many on the rocky coasts. Half the fleet did not return.

• English losses — virtually nil.
• Spanish losses — 50+ ships, 20,000 men.

Significance

• Religious — propaganda victory for Protestantism. "He blew with His winds and they were scattered."
• Naval — England as serious sea power.
• Political — Elizabeth's personal authority cemented (Tilbury Speech).
• Practical — did not end Spanish threat (war continued to 1604), but eliminated invasion danger.

Tilbury Speech 1588

Elizabeth visited her army at Tilbury while the Armada was at sea. Her speech:

"I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too."

Famous propaganda — exact wording uncertain — but immortalised her image as warrior queen.

Examiner advice

Strong answers connect:

• Religious division → Mary as Catholic figurehead → plots → Mary's execution → Armada.
• Show how each crisis strengthened Elizabeth's authority through propaganda.
• Acknowledge that her success depended on luck (storms, Spanish errors) as well as skill.