P2.L.4Non-verbal communication: functions of body language, eye contact, facial expression, posture and gesture; personal space (Hall)

Up to 65% of communication in face-to-face interaction is non-verbal (Mehrabian's contested figure — but the principle that NVC carries serious weight is well established). The main channels:

Channels of non-verbal communication

• Body language — overall posture and movement, e.g. open vs closed posture (arms folded), leaning in/out, mirroring.
• Eye contact — duration and frequency. In Western contexts, sustained eye contact often signals attention or attraction; avoidance can signal discomfort or deception.
• Facial expression — Ekman's six "basic" emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust) seem to be cross-culturally recognised.
• Posture — slumped vs upright signals mood, status and engagement.
• Gesture — illustrators (drawing the size of a fish), emblems (thumbs-up), regulators (head nods to encourage speech), affect displays (grief).
• Paralanguage — pitch, tone, volume, pace of voice. (Some textbooks include this; some keep it separate.)
• Personal space (proxemics) — how close we sit/stand to others.

Functions of non-verbal communication

• Replace speech — a thumbs-up, a wave goodbye.
• Reinforce speech — nodding while saying "yes."
• Contradict speech — frowning while saying "I'm fine." (NVC often wins when it conflicts with words.)
• Regulate conversation — eye contact and head nods signal whose turn to speak.
• Express emotion — facial expressions and posture leak feeling even when words don't.
• Convey status and rapport — mirroring posture builds rapport; powerful gestures convey dominance.

Personal space (Hall, 1966)

Edward T. Hall identified four zones in Western cultures:

• Intimate — 0–45 cm. Embracing, whispering. Reserved for partners, family, very close friends.
• Personal — 45 cm – 1.2 m. Conversation with friends.
• Social — 1.2–3.6 m. Conversations with acquaintances and at work.
• Public — 3.6 m+. Public speaking.

Violating these zones causes discomfort — backing up, breaking eye contact, fidgeting. The boundaries are culture-dependent: Latin American and Mediterranean cultures often have closer personal zones than Northern European; Japanese culture often has wider ones.

Argyle (1988) identified factors that modify personal space:

• Status — higher-status individuals tend to receive more space.
• Gender — same-sex female pairs tend to sit closer than same-sex male pairs (Western data).
• Culture — see above.
• Age — children stand closer; teens become more sensitive to space.

Evidence

• Argyle (1988) — meta-analysis of NVC research showing consistent gender, status and cultural effects.
• Hall (1966) — original observational work establishing the zone model.
• Sussman & Rosenfeld (1982) — cross-cultural study: Venezuelan participants sat closer than American participants who sat closer than Japanese participants in matched conversations.